Importance Of Chemistry Essay

Our entire universe is made up of matter which is constantly changing forms and evolving into other forms of energy. We use chemistry from the beginning of the day till its end, the toothpaste we use to brush our teeth is made of abrasives, fluoride, and detergents. These common household items contain batteries, which make them very chemically dependent. The purification our water by process of chlorination, dental cleanliness from toothpaste, sterilization, the control and the cure of disease are all a part of daily living discovered and created by chemistry. These discoveries make up a major component for the protection of our health and hygiene and are vital for the future existence of mankind. Chemistry is the branch of science that deals with the identification of the substances of which matter is composed, of their properties and the ways in which they interact, combine, and change. The use of these processes to form new substances, understanding the importance of chemistry is essential to know the importance of chemistry in everyday life. Everything on earth is made up of chemicals you, your food, and the products you use in life such as soaps, perfumes etc. all are made up of chemicals. Life without chemicals is impossible. A number of changes that you observe are the result of chemical reactions like the rain, the change in the color of leaves, cleaning of any particular material in your house, all involve chemicals. You need to understand certain chemical reactions. When does your packet food expire? What disinfectants and repellents you should use to keep your house hygienic and healthy and so on. A guest (Jonathan Liu) stated â€Å"I never knew that chemistry is applied to so many things in everyday life! I knew that there would be a lot of math involved and just thought that we would be studying science more in depth. Now that I’ve read this, I am more interested in studying chemistry at school†. Chemistry is important because it helps in exploring things which are unknown to mankind. Chemistry is important because it explains the future behavior of plants and animals and all of us use chemicals directly or indirectly in our daily lives. We are us ing chemistry when we cook, when we wash, when we eat, when we get ready, when we play, when we think, as a  matter of fact, we always use chemistry. Increasing the knowledge in chemistry is important if we want to improve our lifestyle on the daily. Chemistry is also important for the environment. When you are aware of the harming effects of the gases like carbon dioxide and methane as a result of the greenhouse effect, you can easily carve out solutions for the reduction of effects on the environment. If you go with a minimum knowledge of the importance use of chemistry you can help in saving the environment to a large extent. Though chemistry is thought as complicated and a boring science subject, chemistry is responsible in explaining the world you live in, apart from explaining cooking, cleaning, medicine and environment issues; chemistry is in essence the study of everything. Understanding the basic chemistry is essential for all, but specializing in chemistry, making a career out of the subject is also interesting. Plenty of chemistry related high paying jobs are available today. All the medical students, physicists, geologists, nutritionists study chemistry. That the importance of chemistry will increase day by day and it is essential to understand the basic chemistry to properly conduct the activities of the daily life.

The Life of Susan Brownell Anthony

She is a leader, an advocate, a reformist, an educational reformer, a labor activist, a seeker of justice, a fighter of freedom, a crusader, a humanitarian, a rebel and most of all, a woman of suffrage. Susan B. Anthony led the life of struggles as she pushed forth the rights of women as equal citizens, amidst the dominance governing of men of her time. The Early Life Imagine a long line of Green Mountains, rushing streams tumbling through rocky gorges, beautiful meadows and forests, old bridges coupled with pleasantly old-fashioned farmhouses and roadways.This picturesque scenery is where Susan B. Anthony was born, a second child and second eldest to Daniel and Susan Read Anthony of Adams, Massachusetts on February 15, 1820. She grew up in the loving and welcoming arms of her mother and father. Although she lived in a somber and quiet home, theirs was a home filled with respect, affection and great comfort. Susan as a child is precocious, brimming with intelligence and life. At an e arly age of three she was taught to spell and read.She has great ambition and does things that are considered beyond a girl’s capacity. Her father, one of her greatest influences was as a manager of a milling company and an abolitionist enthusiast at that time. At the age of 10, she was permitted by her kind and charitable mother to accompany his father in his work and at the age of eleven was able to detect the injustice seen on women (Harper, 1969). She noticed a worker named Sally Ann who was exceptional in weaving not rising to a position of an overseer.A man named Elijah, who was the overseer at that time, kept going over to Sally Ann when dire situations come and in turn Sally Ann always manages to deliver and correct the problems. And so when she asked her father why ever Sally Ann never got the position as an overseer, he replied that it’s because she was a woman, the dissatisfaction of Susan grew up in a place filled with women. Most of the mill’s weave rs were young girls and as custom, they reside with the millowner.Susan together with her mother took care of these women and cooks and packs a dinner pail for them. Education was very important in their household. When the family moved to Battenville, there is an old fashioned district school taught by a man in winter and a woman in summer, however their views on teaching a girl lessons that were never insisted upon her such as Mathematics pushed her father to build a private school employed with the best teachers and only admitted children willing to associate with his own.Girls were taught sewing, spelling as well as reading. Susan at the age of 15 became a teacher herself. This caused much debate from their neighbors for women are only employed or only work when situations are pressed upon them. In her time, women’s values as equals were ignored and the right to vote where given to a chosen few, however this was not the case in their household and Susan never forgot the m ark that forever instilled her to fight. Issues of slavery also intermingle, she once heard her father saying never to buy cotton raised by slavery.She joined meetings and conferences along with her father by the time she was old enough and thus began her quest for freedom (Lutz, 1959). The Susan B. Anthony as an Abolitionist Members of Susan Anthony’s house during Sundays would meet at their farm where they were occasionally joined by Frederick Douglass and William Lloyd Garrison. In 1956 she became an agent of American Anti-Slavery Society wherein she’s active in conducting speeches and meetings. As a result she was mobbed, threatened. She was hung in effigy and her image was dragged around the streets.In 1963, together with her closest friend, Elizabeth Stanton that she met on 1951 created Women's National Loyal League wherein they fought for the rights of Black women as full citizens by means of being allowed to vote. They were bitterly disappointed when their peti tion didn’t appear in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments, however continued their campaign in her newspaper The Revolution that she herself is the editor and publisher. An Educational Reformer At the age of 26, Susan Anthony was the head of the girl’s department at Canajoharie Academy fro two years earning $110 a year.It was in 1953 that she called for a convention in which pinpoint the issues regarding better pay and positions for women. She reiterated that it should be so because men and women’s minds are of no difference so better opportunities should also be given to women ad ex-slaves such as education and equal treatment. One of her most memorable exploits was during the 1890’s, when she raised $50,000 to secure the admittance of women in the University of Rochester putting her life insurance policy in value to meet up the deadline.The said University was forced to submit due to their promise and as a result, during 1900’s women were adm itted for the first time. As a Labor Activist In her paper, The Revolution she promoted the eight-hour day and equal pay for equal work which in turn promoted the purchasing of American-made goods and immigration in the South and resettle in the country. She encouraged women to form unions that will secure their right as workers and spearheaded the Workingwomen's Central Association in 1970. As a Temperance Worker Her family always condemned the drinking of liquor.Back when she was a head of the girl’s department, she joined the Daughter of Temperance, a movement that notifies the public of the effects of liquor on families and campaigned for a law against it. There was a time when she had been refused to speak in a convention and in turn she walked out and held a convention of her own. Together with Elizabeth Stanton, she formed another organization and fought their way to the creation of laws against liquors. A Woman Suffragist and a Campaigner Anthony believed that in orde r for men and women to become equal, a necessity for women to be allowed to vote should be in order.It symbolizes the capacity for women to decide and at the same time be acknowledged of their worthiness. It was the onset of voting in 1872 that she defiantly casted her ballot in the presidential elections and was arrested because of it. In turn she denied that it wasn’t a crime and refused to pay for the penalty. She argued that she was merely exercising her right as a citizen of the country and recited the preamble of the federal constitution wherein she stressed that the citizens of the country, not white men or male men forms the union.It was in February 15, 1906, at the age of 86, Susan B. Anthony died. Ten thousand mourners grieved for her. In her later years she had extensively traveled the world seeking for woman empowerment. She was able to organize 48 countries with the same cause. It was 100 years after her birthday that 19th amendment was passed on, extending the r ights of women to vote. A Conclusion In the end, it is safe to say that Susan B. Anthony is truly a woman ahead of her time. She might have lived a life full of struggles but she had lived on to the fullest.She had fought her way against the system in order to right what she thinks is an injustice. In the end, she is truly a hero and a martyr that maybe in one way or another, had not been not much credited upon. She is a symbol of truth and a mother of all women. She represents the women of today that now know how to fight for their rights. She had gone a long way but in the end, she fought hard and won hard. Her legend lives on as women continue to uphold their worth as women in the society, amidst the onslaught of injustices and oppression.The fight still continues as long as there are still those who suffer. References An Account of the Proceedings of the Trial of Anthony, on teh Charge of Illegal voting, at the Presidential Election in November, 1872. Rochester: Daily Democrat a nd Chronicle Book Print, 1872. Reprinted 2002 by The Lawbook Exchange Limited. Biography of Susan B. Anthony. Retrieved January 18, 2008 from http://www. susanbanthonyhouse. org/biography. shtml Harper, Ida Husted. (1969) Life and Work of Susan B. Anthony. New YorkL Arno, 1969. NOTES: Reprint of ten 1898-1908 ed.Holland, Patricia G. â€Å"Susan B. Anthony. † Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2007 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2006. Linder. Doug (2001). The Trial of Susan B. Anthony for Illegal Voting. Retrieved January 18 2008 from http://www. law. umkc. edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/anthony/sbaaccount. html Lutz, A. (1959). Susan B. Anthony: Rebel, Crusader, Humanitarian. Zenger Publishing Co. Inc. Washington D. C. Susan B. Anthony. (2006). American Atheist. Retrieved January 18, 2008 from http://www. atheists. org/Atheism/roots/anthony/

Reflections on possible difficulties encountered in carrying out a Essay

Reflections on possible difficulties encountered in carrying out a country risk analysis - Essay Example The methods used by the largest and most famous investment institutions are also in the focus. The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is taken to exemplify the categories and methods discussed. In the World Factbook we find that â€Å"the economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo has declined drastically since the mid-1980s. The war, which began in August 1998, dramatically reduced national output and government revenue, increased external debt, and resulted in the deaths of perhaps 3.5 million people from violence, famine, and disease. Foreign businesses curtailed operations due to uncertainty about the outcome of the conflict, lack of infrastructure, and the difficult operating environment. Conditions improved in late 2002 with the withdrawal of a large portion of the invading foreign troops. The transitional government has reopened relations with international financial institutions and international donors, and President KABILA has begun implementing reforms. Much economic activity lies outside the GDP data. Economic stability improved in 2003-05, although an uncertain legal framework, corruption, and a lack of openness in government policy continues to hamper growth† (The World Factbook). According to some experts in CRA, country risks can be divided into some precise categories. In the consulted sources six categories can be found. They are as follows: economic, transfer, exchange rate, location, sovereign and political risks (Meldrum, 2000, p.2). These categories do not stand apart from each other, but are closely interrelated due to the specifics of a domestic economy. The economic risk is closely connected to the overall economic policy of the country, that is, its fiscal or monetary policies interrelating with such nationally important factors of wealth distribution or industry decline. This type of risk goes hand by hand with political risks.

IRB Proposal Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

IRB Proposal - Assignment Example The five survey tools include online surveys, mobile data collection surveys, face-to-face surveys, mail and telephone survey tools. A Description of The Subjects of This Study Will Include: 1.0 Sampling procedures Set rules and procedures will be established in order to have a diverse sample so that extensive and comprehensive results are achieved. The sampling procedures will include patients who have had a long history of various neurologic complications and it will also include those patients who have recently being diagnosed. Thus, this will enable the study to have a variety of subjects for a thorough understanding. The patients will be sampled from two metropolitan hospitals in order to have a diverse sample that is all inclusive of all races (Biller, 2008). 2.0 Sampling population The sample population will include all patients from all ages including the young and the old. This will enable the study to be wide and have various patients so that the sample is complete with peo ple from different age groups. It is paramount for the study to research and comprehend how induced therapeutic hypothermia impacts neurologic function and improve patients of different age groups since there has to be similarities and differences on the impact depending on the age groups (Biller, 2008). Since the sample population will be taken from two metropolitan hospitals, the sample population will be wide and diverse with patients from different backgrounds. This will be beneficial for the study in researching the impacts on different races and also the rate of response in accordance to the age, race and location of the patient. Recent research has elaborately shown that these three factors of age, race and locality of the patient greatly impact on the responses to various medical conditions (Tisherman & Sterz, 2005). 3.0 Number of subjects expected to participate The number of subjects expected to take part in the study is 200. This number was agreed on since it is quite a l arge number of subjects and it will be able to incorporate all the subjects in line with the sampling population. The 200 subjects will be from each metropolitan hospital and therefore the study will comprise of a total of 400 subjects which is humongous for a successful research. A successful study requires such a number of subjects in order to achieve reasonable and accurate results (Tisherman & Sterz, 2005). 4.0 Duration In Which Subjects Will Be Involved The subjects will be involved in the study for a period of 6 months from each metropolitan hospital. This will enable the research term to extensively conduct thorough studies on the subjects since the duration is long enough. Each metropolitan hospital will be allocated 6 months and therefore the whole study period for the subjects will be one year. This duration is adequate to fully understand and study even the minute details from a subject in regard to this research. Therefore, it is evident that the final results will be co rrect and the rate of errors will be minimal. The duration will enable the research team to have ample time to compare and contrast any similarities and differences between the subjects from the two metropolitan hospitals (Biller, 2008). 5.0 Follow-up procedures after the study After the study is over, there will be a 3 months period for following-up the subjects to see if there are any notable changes. These changes can either be positive or negative depending on the situation. Since the body is very complex, it is paramount to

FACILITIES, STADIA AND THE ENVIRONMENT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

FACILITIES, STADIA AND THE ENVIRONMENT - Essay Example Expansion of the existing stadium of the Arsenal club was not possible because of the space crunch. Due to this there was a loss of total revenue. Hence construction of a much larger stadium was extremely required. Since Islington was very close to Highbury, Arsenal decided to move on to this location, which could afford around 60, 400 seats. The club had to first buy different lands to relocate Islington Council's recycling plant and Royal Mail Holloway Delivery Office earlier situated in the chosen location (Islington). This was a very expensive move for the club. The Emirates Airlines has signed a 100m sponsorship deal with the club. This is the reason why the stadium has been named Emirates Stadium. The name of the stadium will remain the same for at least 15 years because of this sponsorship. The club had arranged for loan from the stadium facilities banking group. The group consists of the biggest names of the banking sector of UK. One of the reasons why the club chose to build the stadium in this location is that it is geographically well located. A number of London Underground stations are within easy reach of the stadium. Holloway Road tube station is very close to the southern part of the stadium whereas the Arsenal Tube Station is situated close to the northern part of the stadium. ... location's geographic importance was most attractive for them because it was in an area with which the club has been associated since the past 91 years. So there was an emotional attachment to Islington, which worked in its favour. Arsenal's reputation is of having world's best playing surface. Islington's land statistics were attractive which was yet another geographic reason for choosing this area for the reputed stadium. Emirates - a multiple purpose stadium Apart from sports the Emirates Stadium is also involved in various other activities like organizing different top-level meetings, forums, seminars, conferences etc. at the stadium premises. The stadium has the planning permission to organise several single day events and up to 3 musical concerts in its premises. Government Policy The UK government's regeneration policies have changed the face of London. The construction of the Emirates Stadium can be related to these policies of the government. All efforts have been made to carry forward the regeneration work in accordance to the policies set by the government. Sports have always been a favourite activity of the people of United Kingdom. In comparison to all the sports, football (soccer) is the most popular game among the people of UK. The government policies are always directed to promote this game. The government's support in this project is an example of its pro sports policies. With the present government and its policies there is no doubt about the fact that sports will prosper even more in London. The construction of the Emirates Stadium is a fresh example of this. The stadium has been announced - no smoking zone, in the light of the no smoking policy in public places of the government of Great Britain. Through this the people are not allowed to

Pottery Statues of Ancient Chinese Art Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Pottery Statues of Ancient Chinese Art - Essay Example There are various arts like painted potteries, folk arts, script, monuments, metal arts etc. Very expensive materials are used for the art works like granite, marble, lime stone, etc and even gold, silver and other precious materials are used. In early times they were not much aware about the materials used for arts and they used stone and rock for doing arts. These antique collections of ancient period are now placed in the museums. â€Å"The museum houses collections of various color-painted potteries of Neolithic Age and treasures of ancient grottoes. The design of these potteries is gorgeous and has the characteristic of the local culture.† (Gansu Provincial Museum). In museums there are varieties of wonderful art works which were done in the past. The Chinese culture hasn’t altered much from before and the people are still continuing with their traditional customs. The temples in China are considered as precious art wealth which signifies the prosperous culture of China. Chinese people have some beliefs with regard to their traditional arts. There are varieties of statues which symbolize different significances and faiths. Laughing Buddha is one among them which symbolizes health, prosperity, happiness, and so on and they believe that it brings all these goodness if it is placed somewhere and there are also other different kinds of laughing Buddha and each one has got some particular concept. The arts like Swastika, fengshui are some of the other Chinese artifacts which are used for good luck and to improve the life. Chinese people believe in such things; so most of them use these types of artifacts. The people from other countries prefer to use the Chinese arts mainly because of their quality and beauty. The ancient Chinese art is very gorgeous and superior which is totally different from other art works; so it has high demand. Not only the Chinese people buy this; people from every nation are now buying

Computer Games as an Emerging Form of Art Essay

Computer Games as an Emerging Form of Art - Essay Example Over the past 25 years, the journey begins from two-paddles and a ball pong game to the complexity of final fantasy, and the sophistication and realism of counter strike versions. The requirement of vivid graphics, better sound, greater memory, and rapid processing has increased the consumer demand of home pc accessories and equipments. The release of new and 3D games every other day has signaled that the game designers are still having enough resources to emerge their creations as a popular art. Computer games are no more taken as a waste of time and energy. It is an emerging form of art, which still requires to be recognized, but still an art. Likewise, the computer games are discussed by the college and university students, as it is used to be for the cinema. These days, a growing number of students are having the ambition to become a game designer, rather than a filmmaker. This shows the increasing recognition of computer games these days as a profession and art. In this 21st century, our aesthetic sensibility is being shaped by this important new popular art and these games are seriously taken in today's world. The proof of its recognition is the admission of web artists and game designers, which were invited in the prestigious biannual show at New York's Whitney Museum regarding the digital art in the modern world. However, this point has not gone through the eyes of critics and one can imagine their responses to the idea that art can be something humorous, unpretentious, and playful as computer games. Therefore, they say that computer is only a tool, and maybe a new form of cultural pollution, where our kids are taught the different ways to kill their counterparts, etc. In contrary, a new lively art is represented by the computer games. It is not computer, but the art is shaped by the human creativity. A realm of experimentation without a physical risk and innovation is experienced and transformed from the computer screen aesthetically, which is accessible to everybody and anytime. That is one of the significant reasons that these games have been embraced by most of the public. However, the same path of cinema may not be taken by these games. Own artistic principles will be developed by the game designers, in order to fulfill the public's desires for interactivity and storytelling. Somehow, games provide a platform to the people, where they can have the freedom to express their emotions fairly, and can experience emotionally. Nevertheless, games do matter. Because, our children's imaginations are spark by them, by taking them to different difficult quests and making them feel the various emotions of strange worlds and stages. Games do matter, because the real world play spaces is more accessible to our kids, which used to make parents nervous and worried about their children. Nowadays, cognitive and emotional development of children and students is encouraged and supported by these computer games. The students are given the opportunities and chances to prove themselves as the best and allow them to solve the problems by their own, or with the help of their teammates. Leadership, teamwork, competition, and collaboration opportunities are formed with the help of multi-player games. The virtual

Asian Financial Crisis and Globalisation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Asian Financial Crisis and Globalisation - Essay Example Therefore this paper investigates the possible causes, contagions and effects of the Asian financial crisis with regard to globalization. The list of potential causes of the crisis is long but a short list would include: the futile attempts of the governments to keep their currencies at artificially high levels, massive overinvestment by various corporations funded by excessive borrowing, government ability to direct banking systems and decisions of lending, crony capitalism, lack of transparency, inadequate financial regulations and supervision, rigidity of labor markets and pronounced mismatch of assets and liabilities in both the corporate and banking sectors (Agà ©nor 1999; Walker 1998). However, the most important causes to the current Asian crises include the low corporate profits and unwillingness of the policy makers to relinquish control. The governments’ directive to the banking systems and the corporate governance structures to increase their sizes and market shares resulted in systematic overinvestment and sharp declines in corporate profitability. Besides decreasing the overall value of most countries in Asia, the shrinking profits weakened the banking sector that most firms rely on for funding (Walker 1998). The government interventions in the currency markets have led to high reductions in the value of currency of most countries in Asia (Rotblat 2001). For instance, when the currency of Thailand (the baht) was overvalued, the government failed to allow an orderly depreciation but fought the market forces because it thought it had enough foreign exchange reserves and wanted to avoid the high political costs associated with the devaluation of baht. With this move, the baht was finally allowed to float and its value fell. Contagion refers to the spread of a financial crisis from one institution to

Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 15

Management - Essay Example The constitution of Italy was adopted in 1947, following a referendum on 2 June 1946 that abolished the Italian monarchy and established Italy as a parliamentary republic. The constitution took effect January 1, 1948. The 1948 constitution created the position of President to fulfil the ceremonial roles of the Italian monarchy. The country is divided into regions, provinces and municipalities. The are 20 regions, which are divided into 95 provinces.   For quite a long time Australia and Italy has good relations with each other which are underpinned by strong community ties which has led to the development of strong trade and investment and cultural links amongst the two countries. Many bilateral agreements have been concluded between Australia and Italy covering many areas such as culture, double taxation, air services, economic and commercial cooperation, reciprocal social security and health care benefits, and film co-production. Many memorandums of understanding (MoUS) have been signed in areas such as science and technology cooperation, defense materiel, defense industry, motor vehicle safety certification, game meat exports and trade cooperation. The relations between the two countries can be proved by the number of high level visits made by the country representatives. Foreign Minister Alexander Downer visited Rome for bilateral meetings with Foreign Minister Massimo D’Alema, the Minister for European Policies and International Trade, Emma Bonino, and the Minister for the Interior Giuliano Amato.   An Australian Parliamentary Delegation headed by President of the Senate, Senator the Hon Paul Calvert, visited in 2005, and met with the Italian Presiding officers.  The Speaker of the House of Representatives, Neil Andrew, met his Italian counterpart Pierferdinando Casini in Rome during the summer of 2003. The Prime Minister, John Howard, visited Italy in July 2002, meeting then

Global Warming Essay Example for Free

Global Warming Essay Introduction Usually when people think of global warming they think of hotter weather. This is not necessarily correct. Global warming is not something that happens over one season but happens gradually overtime. The term global warming is a bit deceptive because it leads people to believe the temperatures will get hotter, this is not the case. Climate change impacts the hydrology and biology of our planet. This can cause stormier, dryer and even in some cases, colder weather. (Maria Trimarchi, 2014) Cultural Relativism When we think of global warming we typically just think about how the climate change is affecting our society. We do not stop and think how the changes affect other under-developed cultures. The article discusses how many under privileged countries die a lot sooner because of climate change. Something that developed countries would not see as quickly. (Sarah DeWeerdt, 2013) Understanding that the carbons and methane we use here in the United States not only affects our air quality and climate control but can have effects in Africa and other countries. The article discusses how the changes in weather from really dry heat to instant down pours of rain affects the agriculture. (Sarah DeWeerdt, 2013) This not only means the region experiencing this change is burdened by the increase and decrease in the climate, but countries doing import and export exchange is also affected. Ethiopia already experiences social and economical problems; climate change will make this country suffer even greater problems. National Geographic states the country already loses thousands of people a year due to effects from the climate. If global warming continues the effects would be catastrophic. (Alan Corbis, 2007) Mechanical Social Solidarity The term social solidarity refers to how a society unifies as a whole in aspects like interests, standards, objectives and sympathies. (Book Reference) Society can take a mechanical or organic approach to this philosophy. A mechanical solidarity society shows high emphasis on religion, society’s interest and has relatively low population rates. An example of this population group would be small tribes in Africa, Ethiopia and South America. Organic Solidarity is the complete opposite. They focus more on secular religion, material possessions, and high population and are human-oriented. The biggest example is America but you could also list China and Japan under this category. (Webster’s Dictionary) The article discusses how global warming is caused by omissions of carbon and methane into the atmosphere. (Sarah DeWeerdt, 2013) Our bigger organic solidarity societies are causing the global warming problems for the mechanical societies. It is unfortunate that we are not only ruining the environment for ourselves but we are also ruining it for innocent bystanders. Ethiopia being one of the poorest countries is being the most hurt by our materialist greed. They do not have the resources to even try and make a difference. Conflict Theory Conflict theories put emphasis on social, political, or material inequalities of a social group. Conflict theories draw attention to power differentials, such as class conflict and generally contrast historical ideologies. (Book reference) Understanding conflict theory is important to see how developed countries are hurting and hindering the development of under-developed countries. Until we draw a full understanding of this, a resolution cannot occur. The article discusses the differences and challenges under-developed countries face compared to developed countries. The risk of disease like Malaria is higher because of contamination and the inability to vaccinate. The United States faces mosquito problems but we do not have the issues of contaminated water. Plus our country also has vaccines to protect our  population unlike most parts of Africa and other countries. (Sarah DeWeerdt, 2013) The article discusses the dry temperatures will cause an increase in mosquitoes and the risk of contracting a disease from insects will increase. Vaccines are a concern but also the inability to control the insect contamination. Major countries have preventatives to control the reproduction of insects. Smaller countries do not have the means to control this growing problem. (Sarah DeWeerdt, 2013) If global warming continues to increase, so will the dangers all from all the effects. Conclusion Our planet as a whole must come up with a solution that protects everyone from the effects of global warming. The countries that pose a risk of losing the most are the ones that do not have the resources to contribute much to the solution. These are also the countries that do not contribute to the problem. Generating lower carbon and methane technology is a must. We need our government and other high power governments to increase federal funding to programs that help in promoting this technology. REFERENCES Corbis, A. (2007). Global Warming Effects. National Geographic. Retrieved on April 24, 2014 from http://www.environment.nationalgeographic.com/global-warming/gw-effects DeWeerdt, S. (2013). Climate Change, Coming Home: Global warming Effects on Population. World Watch. Retrieved from http://www.worldwatch.org/global-warming Trimarchi, M. (2014). Top 10 Worst Effects of Global Warming. Discovery. Retrieved on April 24, 2014 from www.discovery.com/topics/worst_effects_global_warming

Karyotype Analysis to Detect Cancer

Karyotype Analysis to Detect Cancer Abstract A complete set of metaphase chromosomes is called a karyotype. It is widely used to detect the chromosomal abnormalities that are related to the genetic diseases and various type of cancer. As the biomedical science advances, various kinds of techniques are introduced to analyze the human karyotype. These karyotype analyse are widely used in genetic counselling to minimize the risk of having unfortunate abnormalities that can cause serious limitation on quality of life. So, nowadays individual and families are realized the necessity to implement the genetic testing. Introduction In genetic counselling, knowledge of karyotype analysis is greatly used to determine the heritable diseases including cancer. Moreover, pedigree construction based on Mendelian principles was used in days gone by the determinable pattern of inheritance. In recent years, FISH (fluorescence in situ hybridization), PCR (polymerase chain reaction), CGH (comparative genomic hybridization) and SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism) arrays have been developed and hold a promising future for human genetics. Among them FISH is the most currently diagnostic tool for the various chromosomal aberrations that can be visible in karyotype analysis. The most tested chromosomes are 13, 18, 21, 22, X and Y that account for 85% of chromosomal abnormalities (Rodrigo et al., 2010). But now, genetic scientists have carried out all the approaches towards chromosome analysis. On the other hand, with the high risk society is greatly interested to do pre pregnancy counselling to reduce the heritable defective g enes for the next generation. Therefore, use of karyotype analysis has been more and more improved in genetic counselling for the screening and diagnosis as well as for treatment and prevention. Karyotyping Karyotype construction and analysis is the powerful diagnostic method to identify the chromosomal studies in human genetics. Karyotyping is usually done at the metaphase of cell cycle in which the chromosome structure is the most condensed. Therefore, it is easier to identify the complete set of metaphase chromosomes (Nie et al., 1998). There are 46 chromosomes in humans (22 autosome pairs and sex chromosomes). Karyotypes show the number of chromosomes, the sex chromosome content, the presence or absence of individual chromosomes and the nature and extent of any structural abnormalities. Karyotyping can be accessed under a microscope to examine the number and structural variants which must be size of 3 Mb or more. Only DNA sequencing can observe smaller alterations (Klein and Tibboel, 2010). Chromosomes in all human karyotype are divided into seven categories depending on their size and on their bands after staining procedure. Each group is arranged into A to G defined by size and centromere position. These banding patterns help to identify specific defect regions on the chromosome. Thus, any defect in chromosome region can be described as accurately. For example; 1q2.4 defines chromosome number 1, q arm, region 2 and the banding 4 (Trask, 2002). Method For karyotype construction, the specimen can be taken from the white blood cell, skin cells, amniotic fluid cells and chorionic villus cells. Then the cells are prepared to enter mitosis and arrested in the stage of metaphase. Moreover, these preparations are treated with trypsin and staining to obtain the banding pattern. After that, a video camera attached microscope directly sends the images to the computer to generate the karyotypes (Yang et al., 2000). Generally, the karyotype can be used to determine if chromosome of an adult has an abnormality or defect that can be passed on to a child. The origin of complex chromosomal defects is identified by using standard G-banding procedures, fluorescent staining, FISH and CGH. FISH is a recent technology to detect the specific chromosome structure by using particular DNA probes. This method is more accurate and enables the detection of micro-deletions and exact break points involved in each chromosome (Ligon et al., 2007). The karyotype analysis is of benefit to pregnant women at the age of 35 and having the history of a previous child with a defect. Because the risk of chromosome abnormalities is dramatically increased in advanced maternal age and if the mother is an X-linked carrier, the recurrent risk is 1 to 2%. Therefore, antenatal screening tests including karyotyping are carried out to pregnant women who are older than 35 years and those with family history of chromosomal abnormalities. Different tests are done in different stages of pregnancy. In first trimester, these high risk mothers are conducted by non-invasive procedures like high resolution ultrasound for nuchal translucency and PAPP-A (pregnancy associated plasma protein A) for trisomy 21 to exclude the major chromosomal abnormalities. Then triple test consisting of a serum ÃŽÂ ±-fetoprotein, unconjugated oestradiol and human chorionic gonadotrophin is usually carried out in second trimester. If the abnormalities are detected, it is necessary to continue some invasive procedures like chorionic villus sampling and amniocentesis for cytogenetic testing. Chorionic villus sampling is offered at 11-13 weeks of pregnancy, Amniocentesis is done at 15 weeks and fetal blood sampling is carried out at 18-22 weeks of pregnancy. Although all these procedures carry the risk of miscarriage, they are suitable for chromosomal and DNA analysis (Callen et al., 1988). Particularly for the detection of trisomies in chromosome 13, 18, 21, X and Y because which account for more than 85% of all fetal aneuploidies. As a benefit, if a couple has a known risk to offspring, they can choose options to avoid or plan further pregnancy. If the male partner is affected, the couple has the option for artificial insemination of sperm from a donor. If the female is affected with a dominant condition or is an X-linked carrier, the couple has the option for egg donation from another female. Moreover, a relatively new procedure is pre-implantation genetic diagnosis. Initially, this process requires in vitro fertilization. If fertilization occurred, one cell is removed from the stage of the blastocyst and then investigated for the chromosomal disorder. If there is no defect, it will be returned to the uterus (Fukuda et al., 2007). In the molecular genetics, DNA testing is divided into four main categories which are diagnostic testing, carrier detection, pre symptomatic testing for adult onset diseases and prenatal diagnosis. In genetic counselling, karyotype analysis is widely used in carrier detection incase of balanced translocation carrier, autosomal dominant recessive, X-linked female carrier disorder in order to evaluate the risk of having an affected child. Furthermore, karyotyping can be used as a pre symptomatic or predictive test in some individuals who are at risk of an adult onset disorder to determine whether or not they carry the mutated gene for these disorders. This test is of value for autosomal dominant condition because of having a chance is of 50% if one parent is affected. Familial adenomatous polyposis, colon cancer and Huntington disease are the examples of autosomal dominant (Bodmer et al., 1991). Chromosomal aberrations Abnormalities of the chromosomes which are large enough to be visible under the light microscope are termed chromosomal aberrations. They are usually classified into numerical and structural aberrations. A numerical aberration is the disordering of chromosomes due to error in separation of the chromosome in cell division. Aneuploidy represents gain or loss of a specific whole chromosome due to failure of a paired chromosome in meiosis. The one with an extra copy of a chromosome is called trisomy and the one with a missing copy of that chromosome is called monosomy. These can be seen in either autosomes or sex chromosomes. Autosomal trisomy will result in early miscarriage and monosomy of an autosomal chromosome is not compactable with life. Autosomal trisomy is associated with increased maternal age (Harper et al., 1995). Similarly, polyploidy represents a complete extra set of chromosomes due to fertilization by two sperms (dispermy) or failure in maturation divisions of either the eggs or the sperm. For examples, triploidy and tetraploidy depending on the number of extra sets of chromosomes. Triplody occurs in 2% of all conceptions but early spontaneous abortion is usual (Munne and Cohen, 1998). Aneuploidy of the autosome The most commonly seen autosomal aneuploidies are trisomy 21-Downs syndrome, trisomy 18-Edwards syndrome, trisomy 13-Pataus syndrome. Sex chromosomal aneuploidies are Klinefelter syndrome and XYY syndrome in male and Triple X syndrome and Turner syndrome in female. Autosomal monosomy is mostly lethal and autosomal trisomy is relatively common (Rodrigo et al., 2010). The kayotype of Downs syndrome is 47, XX/XY, +21 that is an extra copy of chromosome at chromosome number 21. The disease incidence is 1 in 900 live births if the mother age is at 30 and is strongly correlation with advancing maternal age. More than 90 percent of cases are maternal in origin and are caused by non-disjunction in maternal meiosis 1. The affected children are born with sever hypotonia (floppy) and also show characteristic facies of upward sloping of eyes, small ears and protruding tongue. 40-45% of the patients are presenting with congenital cardiac abnormalities and serious limitation of IQ scores ranging from 25-75. The average life span is 50-60 year if the affected one does not have severe cardiac problems. Most of the patients suffer from Alzheimer disease in later life because of a gene dosage effect of amyloid precursor protein on chromosome 21(Wald et al., 1997). The karyotype of Patau syndrome is 47, XX/XY, +13 and of Edward syndrome is 47, XX/XY, +18. Patau and Edward syndrome share many clinical features in common and are usually found at the time of doing cytogenetic analysis in malformed children. They both show the incidence of 1 in 50,000 and convey a very poor prognosis, with most affected infants dying during the early life. Approximately 60% of cases are caused by non-disjunction and 10% of cases are resulted from mosiacism or unbalanced rearrangement. The recurrence risk is less than 1% if the parent is not a carrier of a balanced translocation (Massiah et al., 2008, Rasmussen et al., 2003). Aneuploidy of the sex chromosome Aneuploidy of the sex chromosomes is more common than the autosomal aneuploidy but has less impact. Unlike the autosomes, monosomy for the Y chromosome is always lethal whereas monosomy for the X chromosome is a viable condition. The commonest syndromes that have ever been seen in the clinical setting are Turner syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, Triple X syndrome and XYY syndrome (Smith et al., 1960). The karyotype of Klinefelter syndrome is 47, XXY. The additional X chromosome of maternal origin is 56% and paternal is 44%. It usually arises from non-disjunction at either the first or second meiotic division (Lamb et al., 1996). For example, if the father produces XY sperm it can cross over with the maternal X ovum to produce XXY. Overall the birth incidence of 47, XXY is 1 in 1000 male with an increased risk at maternal age and azoospermatic infertile males (Steinberger et al., 1965). This is the single commonest cause of hypogonadism and infertility in male. The other clinical findings include learning difficulties, gynecomastia and taller than average with long lower limbs. There is increased incidence of carcinoma breast and osteoporosis in adult life. But it can be treated with testosterone from puberty onwards and fertility has been achieved by using the techniques of testicular sperm aspiration and intracytoplasmic sperm injection in a small number of affected males. Monosomy of the X chromosome results in Turner syndrome, 45, XO karyotype due to non-disjunction in either parent. It is estimated that 1% of all conception from which 95 to 99% of all 45, XO embryos die before birth. Therefore, the incidence of live birth is very low ranging from 1 in 5000 to 1 in 10,000. It is being detected by routine ultrasound scan during second trimester showing the residue of intrauterine edema with neck webbing. They have significant defects in height, sexual development and fertility but there is no mental retardation (David et al., 1986). The short stature is apparent without growth hormone treatment and it is due to haploinsufficiency of the SHOX gene on the pseudoautosomal region. For the management of infertility, estrogen therapy should be started at adolescence for the development of secondary sexual characteristics and in-vitro fertilization using donor eggs offers the prospect of pregnancy. The karyotype of the super female syndrome is 47, XXX which is also known as triple X syndrome. It usually appears as physically normal but 15- 25% are mildly mentally handicapped and quite oppositional behavior. About three quarters of the affected females are fertile of which one- half of their offspring would expect to have this syndrome (Michalak et al., 1983). Many studies have shown that the additional X chromosome is of maternal in origin in 95% of the cases due to error in meiosis I. Furthermore, another karyotype defect associated with personality disorder is 47, XYY syndrome. It was firstly noted in 1965 in a cytogenetic survey in males for violent and dangerous antisocial behavior and about 4.5% of the males in this survey were shown as XYY karyotype. The frequency of having this characteristic karyotype in the general population is 1 in 1000 birth according to the sub-sequent studies. The recurrence risk for the offspring would be 2XXY : 2XY : 1XX : 1XYY due to production of YY sperm at the second meiotic division or post-fertilization non-disjunction of the Y (Staessen et al., 2003). Structural aberration is the disordering of the structure and shape of the chromosome resulting from chromosomal breakage and error in rejoining mechanisms. Translocation is the transfer of chromosomal material between non-homologous chromosomes but there is no DNA loss. Three recognizable translocations are reciprocal, centric fusion (Robertsonian) and insertion. The one important thing in translocation is the balanced reciprocal translocation which occurs in two non-homologus chromosomes (Michael and Malcolm, 1997). In a normal population, 1 in 500 is known balanced carriers and they are clinically healthy but they can give a problem when they reproduce. It is possible for the balanced translocation carrier to pass on the translocation in an unbalanced form that can lead to miscarriage and physical or developmental problems (Munne et al., 2000). Deletion is the loss of a part of a chromosome that can cause multiple dysmorphic features because of the loss of one or more gene. For a deletion to be seen in karyotype analysis, the amount of deletion must be large. It may also occur as a result of an unbalanced translocation (Barber, 2005). Although deletion of a small piece of chromosome is not a serious problem, deletion of entire chromosome is lethal. Therefore, only a few viable conditions are found with a large deletion. Angelman syndrome Deletion of the terminal portion of chromosome 4 causes the Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome. Cri du chat syndrome is caused by a deletion in the short arm of chromosome 5. Both conditions are very rare and the incidence is 1 in 100,000 live births (Cerruti, 2001). Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome usually presents with variable phenotypic features. A characteristic feature of the Cri-du-chat syndrome is having a sound of cat like cry (Niebuhr, 1978). The phenotype is slightly different depending on their chromosome break point. There are two regions of break point in the short arm of chromosome 5 that have been identified in this syndrome. Loss of chromosome segment in 5p15.3 results in abnormal larynx development and deletion in 5p15.2 is associated with mental retardation (Overhauser et al., 1994; Simmons et al., 1995). Prader-Willi syndrome and Angleman syndrome are caused by deletion in the region 15q11-13 or by uniparental disomy (Ledbetter, 1981). If both copies of the chromosome are inherited from the father, the child will have Angelman and from the mother, the child will have Prader-Willi syndrome (Horsthemke, 1996). The incidence of Prader-Willi is 1 in 10, 000 whereas Angelman is 1 in 20, 000 live birth (Clayton-Smith, 1993; Petersen et al., 1995). A characteristic feature of Prader-Willi syndrome is sleepiness and of Angelmans are bouts of laughter (Zori et al., 1992). The children with Prader-Willi syndrome develop marked obesity and learning difficulties in the later life. These cytogenetic microdeletions in the long arm of chromosome 15 can be visible by using either FISH (fluorescence in situ hybridization) or DNA analysis with probes from the deleted region (Nicholls, 1994). Wilms tumour is the one of the micro deletion syndromes and deletion occurs at chromosome 11p13. The affected child develops renal neoplasm (Wilms tumour) together with aniridia (absent iris), genitourinary malformations and growth retardation. This combination is also known as WAGR syndrome. It is due to loss of several genes within this deletion. For example, loss of PAX6 is responsible for aniridia and loss of WT1 causes Wilms tumour. DiGeorge syndrome is caused by a mocro deletion in the proximal long arm of chromosome 22. The incidence is 1 in 400 live births and is presenting with heart abnormalities, thymic and parathyroid hypoplasia. The half of the affected has short stature and partial growth hormone deficiency. In adult life, 25% of the cases suffer from schizophrenia. A micro deletion at the chromosome 7q11 causes Willams syndrome presenting with elf like face, hypercalcemia and supravalvular aortic stenosis. It is due to loss of one copy of the gene that encodes elastin. With the improvement in the cytogenetic techniques and the use of FISH, additional rare micro deletion syndromes are identified, for example; deletion 1p36 syndrome and Smith-Magenis syndrome. The other structural abnormalities include duplication, inversion and mosiacism and the rare structural variants are fragile site, heteromorphisims, isochromosome and ring chromosome. Cancer and chromosomal abnormalities Some of the cancers can be detected by karyotype analysis. The connection between chromosome rearrangement and cancer is evident in hematological malignancies. The several chromosomal translocations are found in various types of leukemia. The specific chromosomal translocation between chromosome 9 and 22 occurs in chronic myeloid leukemia is called the Philadelphia chromosome. In this case, a part of the proto-oncogene, c-ABL on the chromosome 9 moves to the BCR gene on the chromosome 22. The resulting BCR-ABL gene codes for fusion protein that has tyrosine kinase activity in excess. Therefore, Philadelphia chromosome positive cases are prolonged survival with the treatment of tyrosine kinase inhibitor. Moreover, detection of BCR-ABL transcripts in the bone marrow by PCR analysis is also necessity for the clinical follow-up. So, it can be used as a well defined diagnostic tool and prognostic factor. The most specific cytogenetic abnormality in childhood acute lymphoid leukemia is the translocation between chromosome 12 and 21 called TEL-AML1 translocation. Moreover, Philadelphia chromosome translocation also occurs in increasing age and carries a poor prognosis. Acute myeloid leukemia occurs in all age groups and is the common form of acute leukemia. The specific chromosomal abnormalities in acute myeloid leukemia are translocation between chromosome 15 and 17 and translocation between chromosome 8 and 21. In the chromosome 15 and 17 translocation, PML gene on the chromosome 15 is fused to the retinoic acid receptor ÃŽÂ ± gene (RARÃŽÂ ±). Therefore, acute myeloid leukemia associated with this type of translocation is well treated with all-trans retinoic acid and results in good prognosis. Furthermore, core binding transcription factor encoding genes CBFÃŽÂ ± and CBFÃŽÂ ² are involved in a translocation between chromosome 8 and 21. Another form of chromosome rearrangement in acute myeloid leukemia is inversion of the chromosome 16 in which CBFÃŽÂ ² gene is also involved. The four most common chromosome abnormalities in chronic lymphoid leukemia are trisomy 12, structural abnormalities of chromosome 17p, deletion at chromosome 13q14 and 11q23. These abnormalities carry the prognostic significance. Likewise in leukemia, chromosomal abnormalities are also seen in lymphoma. Lymphoma is a group of diseases caused by malignant lymphocytes that accumulate in the lymph nodes. Burkitts lymphoma is caused by viral infection that induces the transfer of C-MYC oncogene on the chromosome 8 to immunoglobulin gene on the chromosome 14. As a result, C-MYC gene is deregulated and the affected one clinically presents with massive lymhadenopathy of the jaw. Moreover, this specific translocation is associated with other forms of cancer including Burkitts lymphoma and multiple myeloma. Chromosome translocation associated with haematological cancers Translocation site Type of cancer t(9;22) Chronic myeloid leukemia (Rajasekariah et al., 1982) t(8;14), t(8;22), t(2;8) Burkitts lymphoma (Margrath, 1990) t(8;21) acute myeloblastic leukemia (Oshimura et al., 1976) t(4;18) follicular lymphoma (Fleischman and Prigogina, 1977) t(4;18) acute lymphocytic leukemia (Oshimura et al., 1977) The proportion of leukemia with a heritable component has been estimated as 25% in monozygotic twins. The risk to sibs in childhood leukemia is 2- 4 times higher than the population incidence. The risk of a relative developing Hodgkins disease is seven fold higher than others (Kelly, 1992). Retinoblastoma is the well known childhood cancer that involves in the developing retina cells of the eyes. The disease onset is usually in the first five years with a white cat eyes reflex or squint. Early diagnosis and treatment will have good long-term outcome. It can occur either hereditary or non-hereditary. In the heritable condition, the disease is an autosomal dominant in manner and is caused by the germline mutation that is the mutation in the RB1 gene. Approximately 5% of the cases reveal interstitial deletion involving the long arm of chromosome 13 in the cytogenetic analysis. In the non-heritable condition, the mutation in the RB1 gene arises as a post-zygotic event in early embryogenesis is also known as somatic mutation. Genetic counselling Genetic counselling is a communication process that deals with the problems associated with the occurrence of a genetic disorder in a family. Genetic disorder is a considerable health and economic problem because there is no effective therapy. So, high risk population group often seek advices as to why it happened and about the risk of having further abnormal offsprings. Therefore, the realization of the need of the individuals and couples together with the awareness of the importance of the accurate information, has led to the widespread introduction of genetic counselling clinics in parallel with clinical genetics. The introduction of genetic counselling services has been provided approximately 40 years ago. Thus, the genetic counselor provides the information related to the medical diagnosis, prognosis, complications and the possible treatment. Moreover, they have to explain the mode of inheritance of the disorder and also have to calculate the risk of the recurrence. Then, they h ave to bring out the options available for dealing with reducing the risks of having a disorder (Frets et al., 1991). . The options are no further pregnancy, adoption, in vitro fertilization with pre implantation diagnosis, artificial insemination-AID by donor (egg donation), termination of pregnancy, or ignore and accept the risk (Zare et al., 1973). AID is performed for husband with AD trait or both are carriers for a serious AR (Taranissi, 2005). In UK, due to the Congenital Disabilities act of 1976, legal action can be brought against a person whose breach of duty to the parents results in a child being born disabled, abnormal or unhealthy. Therefore, antenatal diagnosis with selective termination of pregnancy became a reality in UK with the abortion ACT OF 1967 (Macintyre, 1973). In the setting of genetic counselling, interviews must be conducted with great sensitivity and psychological insight as the parents may feel guilty for their abnormal babies. Therefore, genetic counselling should be offered to both parents and must give adequate time under an appropriate situation. The depth of explanation should be matched to education background of the couples, outlining of the genetic basic of the condition with the aid of diagrams and recurrent risk calculations (Sermon, 2002). The quality of the genetic counselling depends on the availability of facilities that ensure an accurate diagnosis can be made. If the diagnosis is incorrect, it will be totally misleading information. The important thing in genetic counselling must be non- judgemental and non-directive. The aim is to deliver a balanced version of the facts which will permit the parents to reach their own decision with regard to their reproductive future. Moreover, referral to an appropriate support group is also the essential integral component of the genetic counselling process. The recurrence risk is usually calculated by using Bayes theorem that express probability of disease occurrence mathematically. Bayes theorem is also known as Bayesian analysis or Bayesian inference. But some of the limiting factors are delayed age of onset, reduced penetrance and use of DNA marker. These are more complex in the risk calculation. Autosomal dominant trait is the risk to each child of an affected person at 1 in 2. However, the risk estimation in family counselling can be difficult because of the variable penetrance and expression. For example in case of incomplete penetrance, although the parents have a dominant disorder but the disease does not manifest itself clinically. This gives the appearance of the gene having a skipped generation. In Autosomal recessive trait, if one of the parents is carrier, the offspring have a 1 in 4 chance of being affected and a 2 in 3 chance of being carrier (Yoshikawa and Mukai, 1970). Recurrence risk of 1 in 4 chances does not mean that their next three children will be uneffected because of the tossed coin phenomenon and joint probability. Therefore, genetic counselor should be explained that there are 3 chances out of 4 that their next baby will be affected. Autosomal recessive disorders are more severe and higher motality than autosomal dominant. In this case, there is usually no family history although the defective gene is passed from generation to generation. Similarly the sex-linked disorder can be dominant or recessive as the autosomal genes. In an X-linked recessive trait, if females are obligate carriers, one half of her sons will be affected and one half of her daughter will be carriers. If an affected male reproduces, there will be normal sons and carrier daughters. An X-linked dominant condition is very rare and vitamin D-resistant rickets is the best known example. Consanguineous marriage and incestuous relationship in the parents provides further support increases for the risk of recessive inheritance. Risk for consanguinity is common in Arab population. As for the carrier detection, some of the inborn errors of metabolism are autosomal recessive disorder like Tay Sachs disease and haemoglobinopathies but these can be detected only by biochemical analysis. But because of X inactivation, few of these are absolute and this information needs to be combined with the pedigree risk using Bayes theorem (Markova et al., 1984). Fragile X syndrome is an X-inked dominant, single gene disorder rather than chromosome abnormalities. It is a common heritable cause of learning difficulties and affects 1 in 5000 males. The characteristic features are high forehead, large ears, long face, prominent jaw, large testes and repetitive speech. This is due to mutation of FMR1 gene encoding CGG repeats at the end of X chromosomes long arm. It appears as a constriction in the X chromosome in the chromosomal analysis called fragile site. The more repeats, the more severe the disease. If this reaches greater than 200 CGG triplets, it becomes a full mutation. Each son of the carrier woman with full mutation will have a 50% chance of getting this disease. Moreover, 50% of the female carriers with full mutation also have mild learning difficulties and there will have a 25% chance of getting a daughter with learning difficulties. Conditions needed for genetic counselling and investigation (Watson et al., 1992) Infertility one in ten of all couples are involuntarily infertile, such a couple needs chromosomal analysis to exclude a balanced structural rearrangement and Klinefelters syndrome. Recurrence miscarriage one of six pregnancies ends as a spontaneous miscarriage. 3-5% of cases have a balanced structural rearrangement Still birth Perinatal death with multiple malformations Gene therapy The recent progress in molecular genetics is the prospect of successful gene therapy. Gene therapy is the genetic alteration of the cells of the affected persons for curing the genetic diseases. Somatic cell gene therapy consists of the alteration of genes in human somatic cells to treat a specific disorder, for example, X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency disease. In this case bone marrow stem cell has been a prime candidate for somatic therapy because it is a proliferating cell and has a long life span in the body. Currently, the best source is believed to be embryonic stem cells and ethical consideration impinges on almost every aspect of clinical genetics. On the other hand, gene replacement therapy has been used for loss of function mutation. This involves replacing a missing gene product by inserting a normal gene into somatic cells. There are many techniques for introducing of gene into cells but retrovirus and adenovirus are the most commonly used as gene therapy vectors. Another method of gene therapy is the gene blocking therapy to encounter the effect of gain of function mutations. These include the use of antisense molecules and RNA cleaving riboenzymes. Conclusion The benefit of karyotype analysis in high risk populations provides the prevention and early management options to minimize the risk. As genetic science development, researchers and clinicians have more advanced diagnostic tool like multiplex PCR, SNP microarray, CGH (comparative genomic hybridization) to identify the far more complex chromosome abnormalities. Although karyotyping by FISH can detect both balanced and unbalanced translocations, uniparental disomy can only be detected by SNP arrays and high output sequencing. Despite the high cost, enormous benefit can be found for society to evaluate the superior treatment protocols and genomic technologies for the future.

Convergent and Divergent Product Technology :: Expository Essays Research Papers

Convergent and Divergent Product Technology Every day we encounter different convergent and divergent products. Some people like the idea of a do everything Personal Digital Assistant, while others enjoy different products used for different things. Convergence can be defined as the occurrence of two or more things coming together. On the other hand, divergence is the tendency to move apart or evolve in different directions. In the instance of modern-technologies and their use in the information age, convergence and divergence play a large role in how new products are manufactured and marketed. There are many examples throughout history demonstrating the evolution of products in terms of convergence and divergence. Evolution of products leads to the current products on the market. These current products and historical trends of product evolution can give us an insight into what is in-store for the future of various forms of media. The dynamic innovations of convergent and divergent products continue to change throughout the in formation age. We can gain an understanding of how current forms of convergent and divergent media have come to be through a tour of a brief historical retrospect. Early on, accessible public technology was limited to the radio, television, and telephone. Each form of media was known as a divergent product. People seemed rather content with this simple way of living and had no trouble doing one thing at a time. Perhaps the first known convergence was the TV dinner. Families could now multitask; they could watch television and eat their meal in front of the television. As humorous as this may seem as a form of technology, this way of thinking paved the way for modern convergent products. Not until technologies became available in the nineties did convergent products become the norm. With the development of the laptop, the cellular phone, and the walkman people started to understand the potential of transportable and compactable technologies. These early technological breakthroughs became more advanc ed and people demanded more features. In time, these features would transform divergent products into convergent products. An evolution of convergent and divergent technologies has brought the market for divergent technologies into the information age. Soon, the radio could play cassettes and compact discs, the television could play VHS-tapes and DVDs, and the cellular phone can do just about anything. The laptop originated this convergent phenomenon with the competition of its size. Laptops became so small that they were deemed the name palm-pilot sometime in the mid-nineties due to the ability to fit in one’s palm.

Rocky Horror Picture Show :: essays research papers

It was a cool, crisp November evening, while five teenagers were hustling and bustling around my house excitedly getting ready for their very first showing of the live version of their all time favorite movie. They knew it would be the best night of their lives. The night of my 15th birthday party, my friends and I all piled into my parents car around 11:00 PM and headed off down the road to the Heights Theater. The movie we are about to see is an all time classic. The Rocky Horror Picture Show is the best cult film of all time. The movie has all the three basic elements it should have. It has funny audience participation, wonderful acting, and a great story line. Before the beginning of the movie, cast members will wander around the theater, and yell out various lines from the movie. When the movie curtain starts to roll its way up, you see a bright pair of red lips singing. When the lips appear, people will start to yell out their favorite audience participation lines. One of my favorite spots in the movie to shout out lines would have to be in the very beginning when the lips on screen are singing the song "Science Fiction, Double Feature." The song is full of participation lines and props that people can bring to the theater with them. There is one line that I particularly like that comes from this song and it goes a little something like this; "and from a deadly place it came from (where?) outer space! (Thank you!)." Another example of audience participation/prop use would be when one of the characters, Dr. Scott, goes flying through the walls of the laboratory in his wheelchair. As he is rolling down the ramp fro m where he flew through, another character, Brad, yells out "Great SCOTT" and that’s when everyone takes the toilet paper they have brought with them and throws it all over the place. Once all the toilet paper has been collected by the cast leader, they pick out one person from the audience and DOUSE them with toilet paper and it’s the funniest sight one will ever see! Even though there is a great amount of audience participation, one really has to turn your attention to the actors in the movie. It takes a special kind of person to really understand the movie they are in.

asteroid defense :: essays research papers

The U.S. federal government is summoning the world's top scientists to an urgent conference this summer to plan defenses against an attack that could wipe out an American city or disrupt the whole country's infrastructure. No, it's not global terrorism. The scientists will map ways to combat an asteroid attack, a cosmic sucker punch like the collision that killed the dinosaurs 65 million years ago and flattened a Siberian forest in 1908. While the world's attention is focused on the real threat of terrorism, the theoretical asteroid menace has been garnering a surprising amount of behind-the-scenes attention. Britain's Royal Astronomical Society hosted an international meeting of experts on the asteroid impact threat in December. In January the world's astronomers petitioned Australia's government to fund a special asteroid-detecting telescope. In February NASA announced the "Workshop on Scientific Requirements for Mitigation of Hazardous Comets and Asteroids," which will be conducted in Washington in September. In March, NASA activated "Sentry," a new system to monitor near-Earth objects (NEOs) and assess their threat to Earth. NEOs are small objects—asteroids and certain comets—that orbit in the solar system relatively close to Earth and could one day collide with Earth. "We've had a couple of close shaves during the past few months," says Brian G. Marsden, with the Harvard Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics in Cambridge, Massachusetts. One asteroid caused public jitters when discovered March 12. Named 2002 EM7, it came from the direction of the sun—an astronomical blind spot where objects are hidden in the sun's glare. Astronomers didn't detect 2002 EM7 until four days after it came within 288,000 miles (460,000 kilometers) of Earth, which they regarded as a close encounter. [The moon is about 239,000 miles, or 385,000 kilometers, from the Earth.] The asteroid was about 200 feet (60 meters) in diameter—big enough to fill two-thirds of a football field—and could have flattened a city, unleashing the energy of a five-megaton nuclear bomb. "I think Mother Nature has given us yet another wake-up call," says Donald K.

History of British Literature

Late Medieval Period 14th Century British Literature 14th and 15th were period of transition from feudalism to pre-industrial era. A time of political, social and ideological conflicts; England was in war with France (the hundred year war 1337-1453 Edward’s claim to the French throne and attempt to bring England, Gascony and Flanders under unified political control). The defeats in France lead to deepening the internal crisis. The decline in agriculture together with the rise in the population resulted in frequent famines and helped the spread during the 14th c. of the â€Å"Black Death†. 381 – The Peasants’ Revolt. Culture: by 15th century England had become a nation with the sense of separate identity and indigenous culture 1362- English became the official language in court and was also used in schools. 14thc. witnessed the first original literary works written in English. Middle English literature English literature of the medieval period, c. 1100 to c . 1500. Background The Norman conquest of England in 1066 traditionally signifies the beginning of 200 years of the domination of French in English letters. French cultural dominance, moreover, was general in Europe at this time.French language and culture replaced English in polite court society and had lasting effects on English culture. But the native tradition survived, although little 13th-century, and even less 12th-century, vernacular literature is extant, since most of it was transmitted orally. Anglo-Saxon fragmented into several dialects and gradually evolved into Middle English, which, despite an admixture of French, is unquestionably English. By the mid-14th cent. , Middle English had become the literary as well as the spoken language of England. The Early PeriodSeveral poems in early Middle English are extant. The  Orrmulum  (c. 1200), a verse translation of parts of the Gospels, is of linguistic and prosodic rather than literary interest. Of approximately the same date,  The  Owl and the Nightingale  (see separate article) is the first example in English of the  debat,  a popular continental form; in the poem, the owl, strictly monastic and didactic, and the nightingale, a free and amorous secular spirit, charmingly debate the virtues of their respective ways of life. The Thirteenth Century Middle English prose of the 13th cent. ontinued in the tradition of Anglo-Saxon prose? homiletic, didactic, and directed toward ordinary people rather than polite society. The â€Å"Katherine Group† (c. 1200), comprising three saints' lives, is typical. The  Ancren Riwle(c. 1200) is a manual for prospective anchoresses; it was very popular, and it greatly influenced the prose of the 13th and 14th cent. The fact that there was no French prose tradition was very important to the preservation of the English prose tradition. In the 13th cent. the  romance, an important continental narrative verse form, was introduced in England.It drew fro m three rich sources of character and adventure: the legends of Charlemagne, the legends of ancient Greece and Rome, and the British legends of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. Layamon's  Brut, a late 13th-century metrical romance (a translation from the French), marks the first appearance of Arthurian matter in English (see  Arthurian legend). Original English romances based upon indigenous material include  King Horn  and  Havelok the Dane, both 13th-century works that retain elements of the Anglo-Saxon heroic tradition.However, French romances, notably the Arthurian romances of  Chretien de Troyes, were far more influential than their English counterparts. In England French romances popularized ideas of adventure and heroism quite contrary to those of Anglo-Saxon heroic literature and were representative of wholly different values and tastes. Ideals of  courtly love, together with its elaborate manners and rituals, replaced those of the heroic code; a dventure and feats of courage were pursued for the sake of the knight's lady rather than for the sake of the hero's honor or the glory of his tribal king.Continental verse forms based on metrics and rhyme replaced the Anglo-Saxon alliterative line in Middle English poetry (with the important exception of the 14th-century alliterative revival). Many French literary forms also became popular, among them the  fabliau; the exemplum, or moral tale; the animal fable; and the dream vision. The continental allegorical tradition, which derived from classical literature, is exemplified by the  Roman de la Rose, which had a strong impact on English literature. Medieval works of literature often center on a popular rhetorical figure, such as the  ubi sunt,  which remarks on the inevitability? nd sadness? of change, loss, and death; and the  cursor mundi,  which harps on the vanity of human grandeur. A 15,000-line 13th-century English poem, the  Cursor Mundi,  retells human histo ry (i. e. , the medieval version? biblical plus classical story) from the point of view its title implies. A number of 13th-century secular and religious Middle English lyrics are extant, including the exuberant  Sumer Is Icumen In, but like Middle English literature in general, the  lyric  reached its fullest flower during the second half of the 14th cent. Lyrics continued popular in the 15th cent. from which time the  ballad  also dates. The Fourteenth Century The poetry of the alliterative revival (see  alliteration), the unexplained reemergence of the Anglo-Saxon verse form in the 14th cent. , includes some of the best poetry in Middle English. The Christian allegory  The  Pearl  (see separate article) is a poem of great intricacy and sensibility that is meaningful on several symbolic levels. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight,  by the same anonymous author, is also of high literary sophistication, and its intelligence, vividness, and symbolic interest render it possibly the finest Arthurian poem in English.Other important alliterative poems are the moral allegory  Piers Plowman,  attributed to William  Langland, and the alliterative  Morte Arthur,  which, like nearly all English poetry until the mid-14th cent. , was anonymous. The works of Geoffrey  Chaucer  mark the brilliant culmination of Middle English literature. Chaucer's  The Canterbury Tales  are stories told each other by pilgrims? who comprise a very colorful cross section of 14th-century English society? on their way to the shrine at Canterbury. The tales are cast into many different verse forms and genres and collectively explore virtually every significant medieval theme.Chaucer's wise and humane work also illuminates the full scope of medieval thought. Overshadowed by Chaucer but of some note are the works of John  Gower. The Fifteenth Century: The 15th cent. is not distinguished in English letters, due in part to the social dislocation caused by the prol onged Wars of the Roses. Of the many 15th-century imitators of Chaucer the best-known are John  Lydgate  and Thomas  Hoccleve. Other poets of the time include Stephen  Hawes  and Alexander  Barclay  and the Scots poets William  Dunbar, Robert  Henryson, and Gawin  Douglas.The poetry of John  Skelton, which is mostly satiric, combines medieval and Renaissance elements. William  Caxton  introduced printing to England in 1475 and in 1485 printed Sir Thomas  Malory's  Morte d'Arthur. This prose work, written in the twilight of  chivalry, casts the Arthurian tales into coherent form and views them with an awareness that they represent a vanishing way of life. The  miracle play, a long cycle of short plays based upon biblical episodes, was popular throughout the Middle Ages in England. The  morality play, an allegorical drama centering on the struggle for man's soul, originated in the 15th cent.The finest of the genre is  Everyman. English Society in the 14th Century Summary:    The Canterbury Tales is set in fourteenth-century London, one of the medieval period's great centers of commerce and culture. In England at this time, society was still very strictly ordered, with the King and nobles having all power in things political and the Catholic Church having all authority in spiritual matters. English Society in the 14th Century The Canterbury Tales, written by Geoffrey Chaucer, is recognized as the first book of poetry written in the English language.This is because poetry was often written in Italian or Latin not English, even writers from England wrote in the other languages because English was considered low class and vulgar, but after Chaucer's writings were published they became a recognized and legitimate work. The Canterbury Tales gives modern readers a good judgment of language in the 14th century as it also gives a rich, elaborated tapestry of medieval social life, combining elements of all classes, from nobles to wo rkers, from priests and nuns to drunkards and thieves.The view of the Canterbury Tales being held up as a precise reflection of English society in the 14th century is significantly correct, because they were very attached to the church and beliefs and the way they all act in the Tales shows how they really were a society of the Church. â€Å"The Canterbury Tales is set in fourteenth-century London, one of the medieval period's great centers of commerce and culture. In England at this time, society was still very strictly ordered, with the King and nobles having all power in things political and the Catholic Church having all authority in spiritual matters.However, trade and commerce with other nations had expanded dramatically in this century, giving rise to a new and highly vocal middle class comprised of merchants, traders, shopkeepers, and skilled craftsmen. † The story starts with a general prologue that provides a panoramic view of society England begins the period with wars, unrest, and almost chaos; it concludes with a settled dynasty, a reformed religion, and a people united and progressive. England in 1300 was well on the way to rapid expansion. It was rapidly increasing in intellectual and mathematical sophistication.Technically, thanks to water power and the mechanical discoveries that flowed from it, England was in the midst of what many historians call the Medieval Industrial Revolution. One reason there seems to be such a break between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance was that there was in fact a break. The 14th Century was a time of turmoil, diminished expectations, loss of confidence in institutions, and feelings of helplessness at forces beyond human contro. lThe 14th century in Europe was a time of great unrest. This as primarily caused by the outbreak of bubonic plague better known as the Black Death. Another cause were the peasant revolts, and the schism within the Catholic Church. The Canterbury Tales, written by Geoffrey Chaucer , is recognized as the first book of poetry written in the English language. This is because poetry was often written in Italian or Latin not English, even writers from England wrote in the other languages because English was considered low class and vulgar, but after Chaucer's writings were published they became a recognized and legitimate work.The Canterbury Tales gives modern readers a good judgment of language in the 14th century as it also gives a rich, elaborated tapestry of medieval social life, combining elements of all classes,from nobles to workers, from priests and nuns to drunkards and thieves. The view of the Canterbury Tales being held up as a precise reflection of English society in the 14th century is significantly correct, because they were very attached to the church and beliefs and the way they all act in the Tales shows how they really were a society of the Church.Alliterative verse: 8th – 14th century AD The story of English literature begins with the Ger manic tradition of the Anglo-Saxon settlers. Beowulfstands at its head. This epic poem of the 8th century is in  Anglo-Saxon, now more usually described as Old English. It is incomprehensible to a reader familiar only with modern English. Even so, there is a continuous linguistic development between the two. The most significant turning point, from about 1100, is the development of Middle English – differing from Old English in the addition of a French vocabulary after the  Norman conquest.French and Germanic influences subsequently compete for the mainstream role in English literature. The French poetic tradition inclines to lines of a regular metrical length, usually linked by rhyme into couplets or stanzas. German poetry depends more on rhythm and stress, with repeated consonants (alliteration) to bind the phrases. Elegant or subtle rhymes have a courtly flavour. The hammer blows of alliteration are a type of verbal athleticism more likely to draw applause in a hall fu ll of warriors.Both traditions achieve a magnificent flowering in England in the late 14th century, towards the end of the Middle English period. Piers Plowmanand  Sir Gawainare masterpieces which look back to Old English. By contrastChaucer, a poet of the court, ushers in a new era of English literature. Piers Plowman and Sir Gawain: 14th century AD Of these two great English alliterative poems, the second is entirely anonymous and the first virtually so. The narrator of  Piers Plowmancalls himself Will; occasional references in the text suggest that his name may be Langland.Nothing else, apart from this poem, is known of him. Piers Plowman exists in three versions, the longest amounting to more than 7000 lines. It is considered probable that all three are by the same author. If so he spends some twenty years, from about 1367, adjusting and refining his epic creation. Piers the ploughman is one of a group of characters searching for Christian truth in the complex setting of a d ream. Though mainly a spiritual quest, the work also has a political element. It contains sharply observed details of a corrupt and materialistic age (Wycliffe  is among Langland's English contemporaries).Where  Piers Plowman  is tough and gritty,  Sir Gawain and the Green Knight(dating from the same period) is more polished in its manner and more courtly in its content. The characters derive partly fromArthurian legend. A mysterious green knight arrives one Christmas at the court of King Arthur. He invites any knight to strike him with an axe and to receive the blow back a year later. Gawain accepts the challenge. He cuts off the head of the green knight, who rides away with it. The rest of the poem concerns Gawain, a year later, at the green knight's castle. In a tale of love (for the green knight's wife) and subsequent eceit, Gawain emerges with little honour. The green knight spares his life but sends him home to Arthur's court wearing the wife's girdle as a badge of sha me. Geoffrey Chaucer at court: AD 1367-1400 In 1367 one of four new ‘yeomen of the chamber' in the household of Edward III is Geoffrey Chaucer, then aged about twenty-seven. The young man's wife, Philippa, is already a lady-in-waiting to the queen. A few years later Chaucer becomes one of the king's esquires, with duties which include entertaining the court with stories and music. There can rarely have been a more inspired appointment.Chaucer's poems are designed to be read aloud, in the first instance by himself. Their range, from high romance to bawdy comedy, is well calculated to hold the listeners spellbound. Courtly circles in England are his first audience. Chaucer's public career is one of almost unbroken success in two consecutive reigns. He undertakes diplomatic missions abroad on behalf of the king; he is given administrative posts, such as controlling the customs, which bring lodgings and handsome stipends. Even occasional disasters (such as being robbed twice in fo ur days in 1390 and losing ? 0 of Richard II's money) do him no lasting harm. A measure of Chaucer's skill as a courtier is that during the 1390s, when he is in the employment ofRichard II, he also receives gifts at Christmas from Richard's rival, Bolingbroke. When Bolingbroke unseats Richard II in 1399, taking his place on the throne as  Henry IV, Chaucer combines diplomacy and wit to secure his position. Having lost his royal appointments, he reminds the new king of his predicament in a poem entitled ‘The Complaint of Chaucer to his Empty Purse'. The last line of each verse begs the purse to ‘be heavy again, or else must I die'.Henry IV hears the message. The court poet is given a new annuity. Henry is certainly aware that he is keeping in his royal circle a poet of great distinction. Chaucer's reputation is such that, when he dies in the following year, he is granted the very unusual honour – for a commoner – of being buried in Westminster abbey. Troil us and Criseyde: AD 1385 Chaucer's first masterpiece is his subtle account of the wooing of Criseyde by Troilus, with the active encouragement of Criseyde's uncle Pandarus. The tender joys of their love affair are followed by Criseyde's betrayal and Troilus's death in battle.Chaucer adapts to his own purposes the more conventionally dramatic account of this legendary affair written some fifty years earlier byBoccaccio(probably read by Chaucer when on a mission to Florence in 1373). His own very long poem (8239 lines) is written in the early 1380s and is complete by 1385. Chaucer's tone is delicate, subtle, oblique – though this does not prevent him from introducing and gently satirising many vivid details of life at court, as he guides the reader through the long psychological intrigue by which Pandarus eventually delivers Troilus into Criseyde's bed.The charm and detail of the poem, giving an intimate glimpse of a courtly world, is akin to the delightful miniatures which ill ustrate books of hours of this period in the style known asInternational Gothic. Yet this delicacy is only one side of Chaucer's abundant talent – as he soon proves in  The Canterbury Tales. The Canterbury Tales: AD 1387-1400 Collections of tales are a favourite literary convention of the 14th century. Boccaccio'sDecameron  is the best-known example before Chaucer's time, but Chaucer inThe Canterbury Tales  outshines his predecessors.He does so in the range and vitality of the stories in his collection, from the courtly tone of ‘The Knight's Tale' to the rough and often obscene humour of those known technically as  fabliaux. He does so also in the detail and humour of the framework holding the stories together. His account of the pilgrims as they ride from London to Canterbury, with their constant bickering and rivalry, amounts to a comic masterpiece in its own right. The pilgrims, thirty of them including Chaucer himself, gather one spring day at the Tabard in Southwark.The host of the inn, Harry Bailly, is a real contemporary of Chaucer's (his name features in historical records). He will act as their guide on the route to Canterbury and he proposes that they pass the time on their journey by telling stories. Each pilgrim is to tell two on the way out and two on the way back. Whoever is judged to have told the best tale will have a free supper at the Tabard on their return. Of this ambitious total of 120 stories, Chaucer completes only 24 by the time of his death. Even so the collection amounts to some 17,000 lines – mainly of rhyming verse, but with some passages of prose.The pilgrims represent all sections of society from gentry to humble craftsmen (the only absentees are the labouring poor, unable to afford a pilgrimage of this kind). There are respectable people from the various classes – such as the knight, the parson and the yeoman – but the emphasis falls mainly on characters who are pretentious, scurrilous, m endacious, avaricious or lecherous. The pilgrims are vividly described, one by one, in Chaucer'sPrologue. The relationships between them evolve in the linking passages between the tales, as Harry Bailly arranges who shall speak next.The pilgrims for the most part tell tales closely related to their station in life or to their personal character. Sometimes the anecdotes even reflect mutual animosities. The miller gives a scurrilously comic account of a carpenter being cuckolded. Everyone laughs heartily except the reeve, who began his career as a carpenter. The reeve gets his own back with an equally outrageous tale of the seduction of a miller's wife and daughter. But the pilgrim who has most delighted six centuries of readers is the five-times-married Wife of Bath, taking a lusty pleasure in her own appetites and richly scorning the ideals of celibacy.

Err Task B Your Work Role Essay

Task B- Your work role Describe the information which needs to be shown on your pay slips/statement. Personal information eg. Name and date of birth Total pay – your full pay before any tax or National Insurance has been taken off Any deductions which change from payday to payday eg. tax and National Insurance, and what the deductions are for. The total amount of pay that you will come out with after deductions National Insurance number Tax code The tax period Pay rate A breakdown of additional payments like overtime, tips or bonuses Identify two changes to personal information which must be reported to your employer Change of address Change of bank details Describe the procedure to follow if you want to raise a grievance at work You should first discuss the grievance with your person in charge or manager. This should be done in confidence with all of the details being discussed so that action can be taken if they feel this is necessary. If your superior is not able to resolve the grievance, then it will be referred either verbally or in writing to the home owner. If you feel uncomfortable going through any of the stages alone you have the right to have another person with you at any stage of the procedure. Explain the agreed ways of working with your employer in relation to the following areas. Data protection – No data or personal information is to be passed on or given out to anyone without the client or the clients next of kin consent. No Data should leave the building unless consent is given by the manager Grievance- If anybody has a grievance they must first discuss this with the home manager so that it can be dealt with. C onflict management- If you feel there is unnecessary conflict between employees you should go to your manager to discuss this. You should find the reasons for the conflict and if it is possible to eliminate the conflict Anti- discriminatory practice – You can work with your employer regarding anti discrimination practice by going to them if you feel you are being discriminated against by other colleagues. You should be able to talk to your manger about this so that she can investigate further and try to resolve the problem. Health and safety – Employees work with their manager regarding health and safety by completing health and safety training put forward by the manger. Confidentiality – It is important that all of the residents personal information is kept confidential and not passed on to anybody. This is unless prior consent has been given by the manager if the resident health or safety is in danger if information is kept confidential. Whistleblowing – You work with your employer in regard to whistleblowing by informing your manager of any wrongdoing that you feel is going on in the home. The manager can then investigate the case further to decide if and what action needs to be taken. Explain how your role contributes to the overall delivery of the service provided. As a care assistant I feel that my role in the service provided is very important to keep the residents happy and healthy. On e way in which this is done is through personal hygiene. By assisting resident to get washed and to say clean this is helping to prevent them from getting sores and infections. Another way I contribute to the overall delivery is by making sure the residents nutritional needs are being met. This is done through assisting people to eat and drink who cannot do this for themselves. Explain how you could influence the quality of the service provided by: Following the best practice within your role- Following the best practices means that everything will be done safely and so the residents will not be put in any danger. Following the best pracises will mean that everything will be done efficiently and so this will make the residents happier and this will make the quality of the service better for them. Not carrying out the requirements of your role – Not carrying out the requirements of your role can put the residents health and safety at risk. If the residents are at risk his will be lowering the quality of the service that is provided. Describe how your own work must be influenced by national factors such as codes of practice, national occupational standards, legislation and government initiatives Your own work must be influenced by these national factors because they give you guidance on the correct ways of doing things. They also set standards so you can stick to the standards or try to better the standards. Your work must also be influenced by them because they give you rules to follow and so you must stick to these rules within your work. Identify two different representative bodies which influence your area of work Care quality commission Describe the role of the two representative bodies you have identified CQC is the Government’s independent regulator of health and adult social care services. They monitor services to ensure that they are meeting the essential standards. If necessary they take action when standards are not being met.